Ryan's Reviews & Reflections

Learning Objects

2010-04-23T17:00:00.000-07:00

I think that learning object databases should facilitate development of context-based or problem-based lessons. As I've stated repeatedly, many resources are required to develop these lessons, and lack of resources represents a major obstacle to implementation. It is probably not realistic to expect a single teacher to design more than a few complex, multimedia-rich lessons from scratch each semester. Access to a wealth of reusable learning objects should ease the strain on teachers to an extent.

In Anchored Instruction, students are expected to mine diverse resources for relevant information, so I think that this model meshes with the concept of learning objects. As Wiley and company state in their article "Overcoming the Limitations of Learning Objects," some incongruence between learning objects is not necessarily a bad thing since people must draw from diverse resources when they tackle problems in the real world. Resources do not all feature the same organization, vocabulary, perspectives, etc. The learning objects, whether informational or procedural in nature, must merely "support the accomplishment of project tasks and goals." Some incongruence may actually facilitate transfer to real-world research and problem-solving.

I also appreciate the perspective of the researchers at George Mason University. They describe a range of learning objects varying in scale. Fundamental learning objects are individual graphics, videos, audio clips, etc. Combined information objects such as tutorials and simulations are comprised of multiple fundamental learning objects. And frameworks seem to be learning model templates (i.e. Anchored Instruction, STAR Legacy, etc.) to which learning objects are added. If many learning objects throughout this range were made available to teachers, then I imagine that development time of context-based or problem-based lessons would be significantly reduced, perhaps even cut in half. Teachers would create a scenario, develop a few unique resources (i.e. introductory and wrap-up videos, challenges/assessments, and rubrics), and then populate frameworks with relevant learning objects.

Cognitive Flexibility Theory

2010-04-18T21:04:00.000-07:00

Spiro's Cognitive Flexibility Theory (CFT) seems to align with research into memory, problem-solving, and transfer. According to most theories of long-term memory, knowledge is stored in a neural network. The activation theory in particular states that when one piece of information is activated, surrounding information is primed for activation, and spreading occurs. In other words, there is a cascading effect. Therefore, people with highly organized, interconnected networks of information retrieve information more efficiently. Meaningful learning (relating new info to prior knowledge), elaboration (interpreting and expanding upon info), and redundancy (learning the same concept in multiple ways) seem to facilitate the construction of such networks. Finally, experience with diverse problems and problem-solving strategies, including heuristics, seems to enhance problem-solving and transfer. Problems that are ill-defined and relevant are especially beneficial.

I'd definitely endorse instructional methods based on CFT for students at the high school and college level. But after performing the CFT activity this week, I feel that many middle school students would feel overwhelmed with the tasks. Perhaps cognitive load could be reduced by using jigsaw during the case study phase. Students could become experts on certain topics and then discuss underlying themes in their base groups. Plans could be generated individually and then integrated. In my opinion, STAR Legacy is a better fit for this age range because it provides more structure. And it is also designed to facilitate deep understanding, problem-solving, and transfer.

I've discussed the advantages of CFT, but the obstacles to implementation of associated instrucational practices are (once again) development time and state standards. I still think that creating a case library would require a lot of time and effort. Of course, pre-existing libraries may be used, but then the model would not be able to be widely applied. And covering narrow state standards while implementing CFT-based instruction may prove difficult.

If I were going to implement CFT in an online class, I would create an online case library and a table outlining pertinent themes in each case (like in the class activity). Google Sites permits attachments, so I might use it to create a website and host the documents. As I already mentioned, I think students would appreciate and benefit from jigsaw. I would use discussion boards, wikis, and online conferencing tools to support collaboration among members of expert groups and base groups.

Case-Based Learning and Reasoning

2010-04-10T13:21:00.000-07:00

"Stories are the oldest and most natural form of sense making." With this quote, the authors distill Case-Based Learning (CBL) and make the case for its implementation. Due to complexity, lack of resources, and occasional dangers, it is impossible for students to gain first-hand experience with all relevant problems. While attending to stories or cases, students vicariously experience authentic problems, and at once, concepts become more accessible and meaningful. In the classroom, stories can be used to provide detailed examples, problem-solving opportunities, and instruction on learning strategies.

CBL encompasses Goal-Based Scenarios and Anchored Instruction, and the advantages of these models are related to students' depth of understanding and ability to transfer their skills to novel situations. While exploring a case, students also encounter multiple resources that must be mined for relevant, reliable information, so they develop learning strategies, too. Obstacles to implementation of CBL include development requirements (time, energy, ability) and state standards emphasizing breadth over depth. Case-Based Reasoning (CBR), a model in which students reuse and adapt cases, is designed to greatly enhance metacognition, but its implementation would only exacerbate CBL difficulties. Creating a case library would be extraordinarily time-consuming, even for a team of dedicated teachers. And in my opinion, extensively implementing CBR would preclude addressing all of the state content standards.

As mentioned in previous blog entries, if I were to teach an online class, I would utilize the following tools to support CBL: video, the Web (relevant websites), discussion boards, wikis, and conferencing tools. In a classroom setting, I would primarily use video and websites, but I might also maintain a wiki, which would serve as a place for students to present information and insights about cases, collaborate, and review.

MOST

2010-04-04T18:55:00.000-07:00

The creators of the Multimedia Environments that Organize and Support Text (MOST) model believe that imagery enhances learning, and I definitely agree. Research shows that people who elaborate on what they're reading by forming mental images remember more than other people. Yet many students may not form mental images unless prompted, and young students are still developing the ability. Moreover, mental imagery may be inaccurate in some cases. Fortunately, teachers may use visual media (video and animation) to provide accurate mental models. In the future, I think textbooks will be replaced by e-books. Students will use electronic tablets to read text at their own pace, and they will be able to bring pictures to life with the touch of a finger.

I've been reading Teaching Youth Media by Steven Goodman in another class, and the video workshop approach parallels MOST in ways. First, the creators of both models urge teachers to capitalize on struggling students' strengths in order to improve their weaknesses. They both refer to facility with visual information as an asset. Second, instruction is embedded in authentic contexts in both models. Third, students demonstrate understanding and practice high-level thinking skills by creating multimedia products. And fourth, motivation and learning are enhanced when students present their products to others. The major difference between the two approaches is that MOST students repurpose multimedia resources while video workshop students create original material. Therefore, MOST can be used with younger students, and it should require less time and equipment.

These multimedia-rich, context-based approaches are designed to facilitate acquisition of both basic and advanced skills and transfer of the skills to relevant real-world contexts. Moreover, they represent an enjoyable (or at least interesting and involving) alternative to drill-and-skill drudgery, so students attend to the information being presented and actively process it. As mentioned in the online lecture, few teachers would be capable of creating MOST software. However, many online tools may be used to facilitate product creation. For example, muveeMix enables combination of separate media (pictures, clips, and audio), Trailfire allows annotation of online resources for creation of guidied tours, and GoAnimate and ToonDoo assist story-telling.

A STAR is Born

2010-03-23T17:43:00.000-07:00

The Software Technology for Action and Reflection (STAR) Legacy model represents a sound learning model, and in my opinion, it is better suited for K-12 instruction than any of the previous models that we've explored. Legacy combines the best features of the individualized, cooperative, and previous context-based models: mastery learning, cooperative learning, and authentic learning. It also shores up weaknesses of other models. The individualized instruction models lack substantial peer interaction and authentic problems, but Legacy includes relevant challenges and encourages discussion, collaboration, sharing solutions, and leaving "legacies," which are tips, resources, and encouragement for future students. The cooperative models present open-ended problems that seem more appropriate for college students, especially graduate and professional students. Legacy, on the other hand, provides more structure with readily accessible resources and hints. And while neither the cooperative models nor the previous context-based models explicitly call for formative assessment, Legacy contains "test your mettle" and "progressive deepening," steps representing formative and summative assessment, respectively.

Legacy differs from Anchored Instruction in a few ways. First, it illustrates the learning cycle with a diagram. Apparently, students and teachers find this visual aid very helpful for conceptualizing the process and navigating the website. Second, Legacy offers "multiple perspectives" from "experts" (traditional experts such as academics and professionals OR ordinary people with experience/knowledge) to encourage research of topics and raise awareness of the fact that people often have differing views or opinions. Third, Legacy emphasizes conceptual change and co-construction of knowledge to a greater extent with the "look back and reflect" and "go public" steps, respectively.

I imagine that implementation of Legacy would result in better outcomes across the board compared to traditional instructional approaches. Legacy encourages conceptual change, remediation, and revision, so students should demonstrate greater persistence and deeper understanding of the content. Students should also be more likely to demonstrate greater levels of transfer and express higher levels of satisfaction with this model since the problems and projects are relevant. Many students will also probably feel compelled to use the legacy feature to leave a virtual footprint for others to follow. Legacy is context-based learning 2.0! Once again, barriers to implementation of context-based models include lack of physical resources and teachers' lack of awareness, time, or technological know-how.

I definitely plan to use Legacy in the future. In fact, I may use Legacy as the framework for my internship project. I would create a site with a homepage featuring a learning cycle diagram that links to additional pages. I would add videos to present the scenario/challenge, multiple perspectives, and some resources. And I would add a wiki or blog to enable learners to share solutions and legacies.

Anchored Instruction

2010-03-13T18:44:00.000-08:00

Like Goal-Based Scenarios, Anchored Instruction involves embedding goals and concepts within an interesting, realistic context. Once again, computer simulations with video clips are often used to present the scenario or problem. Although the two models overlap, I noticed a few differences. First, students generally work in groups during Anchored Instruction. Second, students share and discuss their ideas during Anchored Instruction, but they do not necessarily work in a cooperative manner or adopt roles. Since assigning roles encourages interdependence among group members, I would recommend implementing this strategy when possible. Authentic roles also encourage students to immerse themselves in a scenario to a greater extent. And third, although Anchored Instruction resources are highly organized, they may be less accessible. Diverse authentic resources are supplied to students, and some may need to be analyzed and interpreted. Less emphasis is placed on expert commentary and stories in Anchored Instruction.

Research indicates that Anchored Instruction is an effective approach. Students learn more and attain a deeper understanding of content. They also display modest improvements in attitude and transfer. Finally, students generally prefer Anchored Instruction over more traditional approaches. Like Goal-Based Scenarios, barriers include lack physical resources and teachers' lack awareness, time, or know-how. In my opinion, schools should switch to year-round calendars because they are more conducive to fostering authentic learning environments. In order to design and produce quality materials, teachers must collaborate intensively during spans of free time (or planning days). One full week during each three-week break could be utilized for this purpose.

I plan to use authentic learning in the future, but I will not rigidly adhere to one model. I will pick and choose the best parts of each model and then integrate to form a cohesive whole. I might vary my approach slightly depending on the content and available resources. Sometimes multiple authentic roles aren't conceivable, and many experts are unavailable for interview. Teachers must be creative and use their judgment. If I were to teach an online class, I would implement a few other tools in addition to video. To facilitate collaboration, I would supply social tools such as discussion boards, conferencing tools, and wikis. I might also place videos on a site such as Viddler to enable students to place comments on videos (i.e. to mark useful pieces of information).

(Extracurricular) Whistleblower Testifies Against USDA

2010-03-09T23:11:00.000-08:00

According to the USDA, livestock are treated in a "humane" manner (synonyms of "humane" include "kind" and "compassionate"), but one of its own veterinarians begs to differ. Dr. Dean Wyatt recently testified about abuses that he witnessed. Perhaps more significantly, he was discouraged from doing his job by his superiors.

Washington Post Article

Humane Society Article

Let's face it. The USDA often acts as a SHILL for agribusiness. The "revolving door" between business and government has been well documented. It's time for the back-scratching to end. It's time for the USDA to do its job and permit its inspectors to do theirs. It's time for the USDA to stand up for the welfare of humans AND animals. Humans deserve better, and animals deserve better...much better.

Goal-Based Scenarios

2010-03-06T20:52:00.000-08:00

More than a century ago at the University of Chicago, John Dewey established a Laboratory School where young children confronted contemporary problems and endeavored to solve them under the guidance of adults. Dewey recruited progressive-minded teachers, adopted a curriculum with an occupational theme, and invited professionals from the community and college to participate in its design and implementation. His students engaged in projects in which they practiced and mastered skills in relevant contexts. At the same time, Dewey wrote extensively about motivation, emphasizing the importance of appealing to students’ interests, exploiting their curiosity, and sparking their imagination.

The creators of Goal-Based Scenarios (GBS) would probably agree that Dewey was ahead of his time. Like Dewey, they assert that “students should learn content and skills in order to achieve goals that they find interesting and important and that relate to the subject matter.” This naturalistic approach to instruction is a form of guided participation, and students benefit from role-playing in many ways: retention, transfer, persistence, motivation, and social skills. During the course of a project, students develop procedural knowledge as they practice skills, and they develop content knowledge as they listen to experts and perform research in pursuit of a goal. They also begin to view mistakes as learning opportunities. For these reasons, I would like to use GBS in my science classroom. It is another excellent example of authentic learning.

Of course, there are barriers to implementation of GBS. Oftentimes, schools lack physical resources, and teachers lack awareness, time, or know-how. Teachers may not feel comfortable assuming unfamiliar roles such as advisor, mentor, facilitator, and actor. Also, unless teachers encourage students to “articulate their thinking” and “reflect periodically on what they have been doing,” students may miss the forest for the trees. In other words, generalization of knowledge and skills may not occur, and attempts to transfer the knowledge and skills may prove unsuccessful.

If I were teaching in an online environment, I would use video and Web resources to support GBS instruction. I would interview experts and stage and record introductions to scenarios. I would also ask students to record their own performances and perform self-evaluations. In my opinion, good WebQuests exemplify the GBS model. An interesting, realistic scenario is presented to students in the introduction. A task is assigned, and resources are provided. Students often assume a role and develop content and procedural knowledge during the process of accomplishing the task. Finally, feedback is provided, and students are encouraged to reflect upon and apply their learning.

Meaningful Learning

2010-02-28T19:45:00.000-08:00

I've been studying Vygotsky's theories in my educational psychology class, and they clearly influenced the Situated Cognition (SC) models. Concepts such as scaffolding, cognitive modeling, authentic learning, and guided participation derive from Vygotsky to a large extent. These models and concepts are useful because meaningful learning definitely occurs when experiences are embedded in a real world context. Math, science, social studies, language arts, etc. are human collaborative creations, and they serve human purposes. To divorce the concepts from the purposes is counterintuitive, and to discourage students from working together is almost perverse. Moreover, problems in the real world are interdisciplinary. For example, I just finished a book about climate change, and it included a chapter about politics and policy-making. I plan to use principles of SC in my classroom to motivate students and ensure meaningful learning takes place.

Some barriers to realization of authentic learning remain, but others are disappearing. When class sizes sometimes exceed thirty students, taking each student "under your wing" (i.e. forming an expert/apprentice relationship) may be difficult. And providing authentic learning experiences is a chore given the seclusion of the average classroom. But to quote myself:

"...the advent of personal computers, the Internet, and the World Wide Web has significantly ameliorated the situation...[They] combine to provide access to innumerable new experiences, and user control of these experiences is unprecedented. In the past, if various constraints precluded a field trip to Yellowstone National Park, a science teacher might have shown a video to her students. Today, the same teacher might lead students on an eTrip...Clearly, neither videos nor virtual field trips match well-planned real field trips in terms of student learning and involvement, but virtual field trips promote active learning through user control. On the other hand, videos encourage passive learning, which is generally less effective. The virtual field trip, a type of simulation, represents just one vehicle for opening the classroom to the world outside. Other simulations, hypermedia, and communication applications foster similar learning experiences with people and places throughout the US and world."

Video was mentioned again and again in the readings, and the authors emphasized active learning. Experts play a significant role in learning via SC, but their time is limited and valuable. Therefore, the authors of the readings recommended recording real world scenarios and expert performances and comments. For example, college professors recorded classroom scenarios and expert audio, and student teachers analyzed the video from different perspectives before listening to expert comments. I think video could be used in online classes to facilitate modeling and authentic learning.

Problem-Based Learning

2010-02-21T17:37:00.000-08:00

Problem-Based Learning encompasses Guided Design, and in turn, Cooperative Learning encompasses Problem-Based Learning. As such, my reaction to Problem-Based Learning should sound pretty familiar. As I stated previously, I believe that the goal of our education system should be to create lifelong learners who are capable of thinking in critical and creative ways about the problems of individuals and society. Since practice makes perfect (or permanent), students should work cooperatively in school to refine their problem-solving skills and gain an appreciation for teamwork. So I advocate all three instructional strategies.

The article about the "tensions" of problem-based learning revealed that the vast majority of criticisms of the strategy are baseless. Problem-based learning (PBL)promotes deep understanding AND knowledge acquisition. Teachers can use problem-based activities to prepare students for life AND tests. PBL students are more likely than students in traditional classes to transfer their skills to real-world settings, and they demonstrate better communication skills. The final nail in traditional instruction's coffin: Students generally like problem-based learning more than traditional instruction.

There are two obvious barriers to the implementation of PBL: state standards and teachers themselves. In many places, the content of each class is prescribed, and in some districts, the order and pacing are prescribed as well. There are advantages to standards, but they tend to limit the number and scope of "experiential learning" activities. As I stated previously, I believe that teachers must prioritize objectives and use time wisely to allow for projects. Teachers may avoid PBL for a few reasons. Many teachers are satisfied with their current instructional strategies. Others are unwilling to give up control. And some lack confidence in their ability to design and manage the activities. In my opinion, teachers are more likely to make the transition to PBL when they receive encouragement and support from administrators and fellow teachers.

I plan to use PBL because I want my students to learn science and develop into capable citizens. I want them to acquire thinking and social skills in addition to knowledge. During PBL activities, I will set aside time for students to conduct research online, and I will refer them to helpful databases. Since I will be teaching in a middle school setting, I plan to emphasize face-to-face collaboration. However, if I ever teach high school or online classes, I will encourage groups to use a variety of tools including discussion boards, conferencing tools, wikis, document sharing tools (i.e. Google Docs and Google Spreadsheets).

Community of Learners

2010-02-12T07:02:00.000-08:00

Stranded on an island, which is more likely to survive? A group of people willing to cooperate or one with an "every person for him or herself" mentality? On vacation on an island, which is more likely to try new things, learn, and generally have a good time? A group of people willing to cooperate or one in which each person does his or her own thing? I think the answer is obvious. Common sense dictates cooperation in most situations, including learning ones. Surprisingly, learning experiences in our schools tend to be individualistic, or even competitive, in spite of clear evidence that cooperative activities are more beneficial.

The phrase "community of learners" has truly become a platitude in the world of education. When I was in high school, the theme for my entire senior year was "unity in our community." But I didn't see much evidence of unity in the classrooms, cafeteria, or anywhere else. I attended classes with a relatively small, stable group of students, and I ate lunch and socialized with several members of this group. Since I was a procrastinator who scraped by with As in class after class, a few of my high-achieving friends often voiced disbelief and displeasure about my class rank.

What steps should the administration have taken to establish a learning community? Tracking was a serious impediment, but suddenly altering the structure of the curriculum would not have been practical (or perhaps even desirable at the high school level). A couple other options would have been viable, however. Dispensing with the class ranking system would have discouraged competition, and encouraging cooperative learning would have improved student relations within each classroom. Studies show that students who work cooperatively like one another more and "perceive greater social support from peers and instructors" than students who work independently or competitively. In addition, students learn more, acquire social skills, and feel better about themselves. Unfortunately, some students are apprehensive about group activities because they've had unsatisfactory experiences in the past. Some students may dominate discussions and activities, and high-achieving students may end up doing a disproportionate amount of work. To ensure success, cooperative activities must be structured in a way that each group member plays a vital role AND is individually responsible for learning. And high-achieving students must come to realize that they deepen their understanding by assisting others.

I definitely plan to implement cooperative learning in my science classroom. From time to time, I will ask my students to perform a guided design project. More consistently, I think that I will use the Double Entry Journal in combination with the Three-Step Interview to promote deep processing (making connections to content, current events, experiences, and opinions) and the development of social skills such as questioning, listening, and interpreting. I will also use the jigsaw method so that each student has an opportunity to become an expert on a topic and share knowledge with others. For example, each student may research a couple planets, inform the group about the planets' unique characteristics, and explain the planets' prospects for life. As a group the students may then identify and synthesize the characteristics of a habitable planet. If I ever teach an online class, some of these cooperative activities could be reproduced asynchronously with discussion boards and annotation tools (i.e. Diigo) or synchronously with conferencing and chat tools.

Guided Design

2010-02-06T22:42:00.000-08:00

The lofty goals of Guided Design (GD) should be the ultimate goals of our educational system, but other methods must also be used to prepare students for inquiry learning and support students during inquiry learning. Virtually all educators want students to become professionals and citizens who make sound, informed decisions in the workplace, at home, and in the community, but there is disagreement about how to achieve this goal. Progressives are generally more optimistic about the capabilities of children, and they seek to gradually augment student cognitive skills, including high level ones. This entails granting freedom to students early and often (student-centered instruction). On the other hand, traditionalists generally favor a stepwise approach in which students climb Bloom’s taxonomy like a ladder. They would prefer to gradually hand over the reins. For one reason or another, this transition usually occurs at a glacial pace, but I digress.

I favor the progressive viewpoint, and GD is clearly rooted in this philosophy. Students in a GD class confront real world situations and problems, and they develop critical thinking, creative thinking, and cooperative skills in the process. Unfortunately, the vast majority of children have never attended a school resembling Dewey’s Laboratory School. Because most K-12 students are accustomed to teacher-centered instruction, I imagine that they would agree with the college engineering students who criticized GD, proclaiming that it required “too much work.” The professors of the GD class mentioned that a significant number of students missed the point of the projects and displayed little enthusiasm. In my opinion, the same issues would plague teachers in middle schools and high schools if they were to implement GD because many, perhaps most, students are not prepared to tackle complex, open-ended problems. Other obstacles to implementation of GD relate to teachers (lack of expertise, time, or energy) and the curriculum (time constraints resulting from the long list of state-mandated standards).

Nevertheless, I think GD should be implemented in K-12 classrooms to the greatest extent possible because promoting critical thinking, creative thinking, and cooperative skills is vital. Even if students appear to be satisfied with mere knowledge acquisition, teachers should insist that they apply, create and evaluate. Over time students are likely to find that inquiry learning is more rewarding, beneficial, and enjoyable than traditional instruction. To facilitate implementation, teachers should consider a number of steps. First, they should prioritize objectives to provide time to incorporate projects into the curriculum. Second, they should provide sufficient structure and support to students. Student experiences should be gratifying, not frustrating. And third, teachers should make attempts to appeal to student interests by allowing students to choose and shape their projects to an extent.

I personally plan to implement GD in my middle school science classroom on a consistent basis. Designing projects and problems will be a challenge, but I’m sure that my students will be able to assist the process by offering input. I think that group activities and discussions are more likely to be productive when middle school students meet face to face, but if I ever teach at the high school or college level, I will certainly encourage student groups to exploit online tools such as discussion forums and conferencing tools. These tools facilitate collaborative efforts outside of the school setting.

PSI and the A-T Approach Complement One Another

2010-01-30T11:38:00.000-08:00

Like Keller's Personalized System of Instruction (PSI), Postlethwait's Audio-Tutorial (A-T)approach is more appropriate for higher education than K-12 education. Both systems require students to function as independent learners to a large extent. College students are more likely than younger students to possess requisite skills (cognitive, metacognitive, self-regulatory) for self-paced learning. Younger students generally require more encouragement and assistance.

Of course, there are clear differences between PSI and the A-T approach. While students participating in a PSI course are essentially "islands of learning," students participating in an A-T course interact frequently during so-called Small Assembly Sessions. With a teacher assistant overseeing, students perform short presentations on key concepts and then participate in discussions to clarify their understanding. The teacher assistant may then administer a quiz to the group or individuals. Unfortunately, the A-T approach does not emphasize mastery to the same extent as PSI. Following an A-T quiz or exam, students do not receive a "second chance." But students participating in a PSI course may remediate themselves and demonstrate improved understanding by taking a parallel assessment.

According to research reviews, A-T and PSI classes are marginally better than traditional college classes in terms of student achievement and student affect. For the reasons outlined above, I believe that the systems are complementary and a combination of the two approaches would yield the best results, especially in a distance education environment. I recommend that college instructors utilize a learning management system, presentation software (i.e. PowerPoint or Open Office Impress), an online screen recorder (i.e. CamStudio or ScreenToaster). Instructors should also utilize an online conference tool (i.e. Elluminate) for small group meetings.

I will refrain from implementing either PSI or the A-T approach in my classroom because middle school students are less likely than college students to enjoy and benefit from self-paced instruction. I believe that Bloom's Mastery Learning is superior to both systems for instruction at the middle school level. With Mastery Learning, students move through units at the same pace, so there are more opportunities for collaboration. And after each each unit, all students engage in remediation or enrichment activities, depending on their needs.

Two Approaches to Mastery Learning

2010-01-22T09:28:00.000-08:00

Fred Keller's Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) may be an appropriate model for distance education at the college level, but Bloom's Mastery Learning (ML) is a superior model for classroom instruction. Both models stress mastery of clearly defined objectives. However, while PSI students proceed through course content and activities individually and at their own pace, ML students proceed as a class. As a result, Bloom and Keller's conceptions of the learning process and learning community widely differ.

Major drawbacks of PSI are related to motivation, learning, and collaboration. Because PSI "encourages asynchronous learning," students must function as independent learners to a large extent. As a result, they are less likely to: receive immediate attention from an expert (the teacher) upon experiencing difficulty; witness, experiment with, and appropriate the learning strategies of peers; and collaborate with peers. By the time students reach college, they have usually developed cognitive, metacognitive, and social skills necessary for learning, self-regulation, and collaboration with peers. However, many young students require additional encouragement, guidance, and social experience. I should note that students often report that they enjoy interacting with peers, too. Therefore, I consider ML superior in most (if not all) classroom environments, and as a middle school science teacher, I plan to implement ML, not PSI.

Of course, students and instructors are not always able to meet in person. When collaboration is not a major goal in an online course, I recommend that college instructors consider utilizing PSI for a couple reasons. First, students will benefit from remediation. And second, many college students enrolled in distance education programs work full-time jobs and have families, so they will appreciate the flexibility PSI offers. To facilitate content presentation, content organization, and assessment, I recommend that instructors use a learning management system, presentation software (i.e. PowerPoint), and an online screen recorder (i.e. ScreenToaster or CamStudio). Students will be able to easily access lessons, articles, and other supplementary materials; submit assignments; and take quizzes that offer immediate feedback.

Note: Some attempts at collaboration could be made within a quasi-PSI system. Davis and Ragsdell mention a team project that was "used throughout the semester as a discussion vehicle to demonstrate the principles covered in the course," but they do not describe how students overcame barriers related to asynchronous learning. How did students at different places in the curriculum work together on a project and carry on productive discussions? I assume that a few deadlines were established (i.e. checkpoints).